Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) test is a medical diagnostic tool used to assess the functioning of the heart, specifically in the evaluation of heart failure. BNP is a hormone produced by the heart in response to increased pressure and stretching of heart muscle …

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Osteocalcin Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The osteocalcin test, also known as the bone Gla-protein or BGP test, is a medical diagnostic tool used to measure the levels of osteocalcin in the blood. Osteocalcin is a protein primarily produced by osteoblasts, which are cells responsible for bone formation. This test …

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Nephelometry-Introduction, Principle, Test Requirements, Procedure, Result-Interpretation, Application, and Keynotes

Introduction Nephelometry is a scientific technique used to measure the scattering of light by particles suspended in a liquid or gas medium. It is an essential tool in various fields, including chemistry, environmental science, and medical diagnostics. The term “nephelometry” is derived from the Greek …

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Micrococcus luteus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Micrococcus luteus colony morphology on Nutrient agar

Introduction Micrococcus luteus, often simply referred to as M. luteus, is a Gram-positive, spherical bacterium belonging to the genus Micrococcus. This bacterium is commonly found in various environments, including soil, dust, water, and on the human skin. Micrococcus species are known for their distinctive yellow …

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Bacterial Vaginosis (BV)-Introduction, Types, Signs and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

Suspected Bacterial Vaginosis Vaginal Swab in Gram Staining Microscopy at a Magnification of 4000X

Introduction Bacterial Vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal infection characterized by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota, leading to the overgrowth of certain types of bacteria. It is a condition that primarily affects individuals with female reproductive anatomy and can lead to a range of …

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K. oxytoca-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

K. oxytoca growth on CLED agar

Introduction Klebsiella oxytoca, often abbreviated as K. oxytoca, is a species of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family. This bacterium is closely related to Klebsiella pneumoniae, another well-known member of the same genus. It is a versatile microorganism that can be found in …

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Morganella morganii- Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Morganella morganii on CLED agar of Urine Culture

Introduction Morganella morganii is a species of gram-negative bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. This bacterium is named after the American bacteriologist, Thomas J. Morgan. It is commonly found in various environments, including soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. While it …

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Micrococcus roseus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Micrococcus roseus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Micrococcus roseus is a species of bacteria belonging to the genus Micrococcus. This microorganism is known for its distinctive pink to red pigmentation, which is a result of carotenoid pigments present in its cells and it is a Gram-positive, non-motile, and non-spore-forming bacterium. It …

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Respiratory Tract Infections-Introduction, Types, Signs and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

Respiratory Tract Infections-Introduction, Types, Signs and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

Introduction Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are a group of illnesses that affect the respiratory system, which includes the organs and structures involved in breathing. These infections can range from mild to severe and may involve various parts of the respiratory tract, including the upper and …

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Lactobacillus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Lactobacillus and Candida growth on blood agar of curd culture

Introduction Lactobacillus is a genus of bacteria that plays a crucial role in various biological processes, particularly in the fermentation of foods and beverages, as well as in maintaining the balance of the microbiota in the human body. This genus belongs to the lactic acid …

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Dental Caries-Introduction, Types, Signs and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

Dental Caries-Introduction, Types, Signs and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

Introduction Dental caries, commonly known as tooth decay or cavities, is a prevalent and multifactorial oral health condition that affects people of all ages worldwide. It is one of the most common chronic diseases, with significant implications for oral and overall health. Dental caries results …

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H9 HbA1C Analyzer (HPLC)-Introduction, Principle, Handling Procedure, Application, and Keynotes

H9 HbA1C Analyzer (HPLC)-Introduction, Principle, Handling Procedure, Application, and Keynotes

Introduction of H9 HbA1C Analyzer The “H9 HbA1c Analyzer (HPLC)” appears to be a medical device used for the measurement of Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels in blood samples. Let me break down what this means: Here’s how the process typically works: Measuring HbA1c levels is …

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Bacteriophages-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Bacteriophages, often called phages for short, are viruses that specifically infect and replicate within bacteria. They are among the most abundant and diverse biological entities on Earth and play a crucial role in regulating bacterial populations in various ecosystems. Here’s an introduction to bacteriophages: …

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Archaea-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Archaea, pronounced “ahr-kee-uh,” are a fascinating and diverse group of microorganisms that belong to the domain of life known as Archaea. They represent one of the three major domains of life, with the other two being Bacteria and Eukarya. They are distinct from both …

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Candida parapsilosis: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Candida parapsilosis: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Candida parapsilosis is a species of yeast or fungus that is commonly found in the environment and can also be a commensal organism in the human body. It is a member of the Candida genus, which includes several species of yeast that can cause …

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BCR-ABL1 Genetic Test-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

BCR-ABL1 Genetic Test-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The BCR-ABL1 genetic test is a diagnostic laboratory test that plays a crucial role in the diagnosis, prognosis, and management of certain types of leukemia, most notably chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and a subset of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). This test helps identify the …

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Mcfarland Densitometer-Introduction, Principle, Handling Procedure, Application, and Keynotes

Optimal bacterial inoculums (McFarland 0.5 turbidity) for antimicrobial susceptibility testing

Introduction A McFarland densitometer is a simple yet essential laboratory instrument used to measure the optical density of a liquid bacterial suspension. It is a valuable tool in microbiology and clinical laboratories, particularly in tasks like adjusting bacterial cell concentrations for experiments, quality control of …

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E-Test-Introduction, Principle, Test Requirements, Procedure, Result-Interpretation, Application, and Keynotes

Placing Vancomycin E-Test Strip for Staphylococcus aureus

Introduction The E-Test, short for “Epsilometer Test,” is a diagnostic tool used in clinical microbiology and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. It is a method for determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of antibiotics or antimicrobial agents against a particular bacterial or fungal pathogen. The E-Test is …

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High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)-Introduction, Principle, Test Requirements, Procedure, Result-Interpretation, Application, and Keynotes

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) based Fully Automatic Lifotronic H9 Hemoglobin Analyzer or H9 HBA1C ANALYZER

Introduction of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) High-Performance Liquid Chromatography, commonly known as HPLC, is a powerful analytical technique used in chemistry, biochemistry, and various scientific disciplines for the separation, identification, and quantification of chemical compounds in complex mixtures. It is an essential tool in pharmaceuticals, …

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Micrococcus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Micrococcus luteus growth on Muller-Hinton agar (MHA)

Introduction Micrococcus is a genus of bacteria that belongs to the family Micrococcaceae. These bacteria are Gram-positive, spherical or cocci-shaped, and typically occur in pairs, tetrads, or irregular clusters. Micrococcus species are commonly found in various environments, including soil, water, air, and on the skin …

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Spectrophotometric Assays-Introduction, Principle, Test Requirements, Procedure, Result-Interpretation, Application, and Keynotes

Introduction Spectrophotometric assays are analytical techniques widely used in chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology to measure the concentration or absorbance of a substance in a solution. These assays rely on the principle that different molecules absorb light at specific wavelengths, and by measuring the amount …

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Normal Flora-Introduction, Types, Distribution on Human Body, Beneficial Role, Harmful Effects, and Keynotes

Vaginal Cell and Bacterial Interaction in Gram staining of HVS

Introduction Normal flora, also known as the microbiota or microbiome, refers to the diverse and abundant community of microorganisms that reside in and on the human body, as well as in various other organisms and ecological niches. These microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and even …

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Staphylococcus haemolyticus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Staphylococcus haemolyticus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Staphylococcus haemolyticus, commonly known as S. haemolyticus, is a species of bacteria belonging to the genus Staphylococcus. It is a Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic coccus (spherical bacterium) and a member of the coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) group. S. haemolyticus is one of several species within the …

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Staphylococcus epidermidis- Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Staphylococcus epidermidis Colony Characteristics on Blood agar

 Introduction Staphylococcus epidermidis, often referred to as S. epidermidis, is a type of bacteria that belongs to the Staphylococcus genus. It is commonly found on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and is considered a part of the normal microbiota, which means it is …

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Arsenic Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Arsenic Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction An arsenic blood test is a medical diagnostic procedure used to measure the concentration of arsenic in a person’s bloodstream. Arsenic is a naturally occurring element that can be found in soil, water, and air. While it has some industrial applications, arsenic exposure, particularly …

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Serratia liquefaciens: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Serratia liquefaciens and Klebsiella pneumoniae growth on CLED agar of Urine Culture

Introduction Serratia liquefaciens is a species of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria belonging to the genus Serratia. This bacterium is known for its diverse distribution in various environmental niches, including water, soil, plants, and human-related habitats. It has also been associated with clinical infections in humans, making …

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Ceruloplasmin Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Ceruloplasmin Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Ceruloplasmin Test is a medical diagnostic test used to measure the levels of ceruloplasmin in a person’s blood. Ceruloplasmin is a copper-binding protein that plays a vital role in copper metabolism and transport in the body. This test helps in assessing copper-related disorders …

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Urine Protein electrophoresis Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Urine Protein electrophoresis Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction Urine Protein Electrophoresis (UPEP) is a medical diagnostic test used to analyze and separate the proteins found in a urine sample. This test is primarily performed to detect and identify abnormal proteins, particularly those associated with certain medical conditions, including kidney disorders, multiple myeloma, …

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Vitamin D 1,25 Dihydroxy (Calcitriol) Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Vitamin D 1,25-dihydroxy (calcitriol) blood test, also known as the 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol test or simply the calcitriol test, is a laboratory examination that measures the concentration of active vitamin D metabolite, calcitriol, in the bloodstream. Calcitriol is the biologically active form of vitamin D …

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Alcohol Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction An alcohol blood test, also known as a blood alcohol test or ethanol blood test, is a medical laboratory test that measures the concentration of alcohol (ethanol) in a person’s bloodstream. This test is commonly used to determine whether an individual has consumed alcohol …

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Lipoprotein (a) Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Lipoprotein(a) blood test, often abbreviated as Lp(a) test, is a diagnostic blood test that measures the concentration of lipoprotein(a) in a person’s bloodstream. Lipoprotein(a) is a unique type of lipoprotein that carries cholesterol through the blood. This test is conducted to assess an …

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Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) blood test is a diagnostic test used to measure the level of ACE enzyme activity in a person’s blood. This test provides valuable information about the activity of ACE in the body, which plays a crucial role in the regulation …

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Adenosine Deaminase (ADA)-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) is an enzyme that plays a critical role in purine metabolism, specifically in the conversion of adenosine to inosine. This enzyme is essential for maintaining the balance of nucleotides in cells and is particularly important for the normal functioning of the …

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Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE) Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE) Blood Test is a medical diagnostic test used to measure the level of neuron-specific enolase, an enzyme found in neurons, in a patient’s blood. This test is valuable in various clinical settings, particularly in neurology and oncology, and it provides …

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Triglyceride Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction A Triglyceride Test, also known as a triglyceride blood test or lipid panel, is a diagnostic blood test that measures the levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream. Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in the blood, and they are a key component …

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Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Reference Range, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) test is a common blood test that measures the level of nitrogen in the form of urea in the blood. Urea is a waste product produced in the liver as a result of the breakdown of proteins and amino …

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Sigmoidoscopy-Introduction, Principle, Handling Procedure, Application, and Keynotes

Introduction Sigmoidoscopy is a medical procedure used to examine the lower part of the large intestine, specifically the sigmoid colon and rectum. It is a type of endoscopy and is performed by a healthcare provider known as a gastroenterologist or colorectal surgeon. Sigmoidoscopy is a …

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Lupus Anticoagulant Profile: Introduction, Components, Clinical Significance, Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS), Monitoring and Management, Interpretation, and Keynotes

Introduction of Lupus Anticoagulant Profile The Lupus Anticoagulant Panel Test, often referred to as the Lupus Anticoagulant Profile or LA Panel, is a series of laboratory tests used to diagnose and monitor lupus anticoagulant (LA) and other antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). These tests are essential for …

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Flow Cytometry-Introduction, Principle, Using Procedure, Uses, and Keynotes

Introduction Flow cytometry is a powerful laboratory technique used in the fields of biology, medicine, and immunology to analyze and quantify various physical and chemical characteristics of cells and particles. It allows for the rapid and simultaneous measurement of multiple properties of individual cells as …

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Actinomyces-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Actinomyces-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Actinomyces is a genus of bacteria that includes various species of filamentous, gram-positive, anaerobic or microaerophilic bacteria. These bacteria are known for their ability to form branching, filamentous structures resembling fungi in infected tissues. Actinomyces species are typically found in the normal flora of …

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X-ray-Introduction, Principle, Using Procedure, Uses, and Keynotes

Introduction X-rays, also known as radiographs, are a form of electromagnetic radiation that has been used for over a century in various fields, particularly in medicine and industry, to create images of the inside of objects or the human body. Here’s an introduction to X-rays: …

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Colonoscopy-Introduction, Principle, Using Procedure, Uses, and Keynotes

Introduction Colonoscopy is a medical procedure that involves the examination of the colon (large intestine) and the rectum using a long, flexible tube-like instrument called a colonoscope. This procedure is commonly performed by gastroenterologists and colorectal surgeons and is an important tool in diagnosing, monitoring, …

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Immunofluorescence assay (IFA)-Introduction, Principle, Types, Procedure, Result-Interpretation, Advantage, Disadvantage, and Interfering Factors of ELISA Test Results, and Keynotes

Introduction Immunofluorescence assay (IFA) is a laboratory technique used for detecting and visualizing specific antigens or antibodies in biological samples. It combines the principles of both immunology and fluorescence microscopy to provide highly specific and sensitive results. IFA is widely employed in various fields, including …

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Adenovirus-Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Adenoviruses are a group of viruses belonging to the Adenoviridae family. They are named after the tissue (adenoids) where they were first discovered. Adenoviruses are widespread and can infect humans and a variety of animals. In humans, adenoviruses are known to cause a wide …

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PAP Smear-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

PAP Smear-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction A Papanicolaou smear, commonly known as a Pap smear or Pap test, is a routine gynecological screening procedure used to detect abnormal changes in the cells of the cervix, which is the lower part of the uterus (womb) that connects to the vagina. The …

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Cytomegalovirus (CMV)- Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the herpesvirus family, specifically Human Herpesvirus 5 (HHV-5), and is a common viral pathogen that infects people of all ages. CMV is a widespread virus, and a majority of adults have been infected with it at some point …

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Stool Occult Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Stool Occult Blood Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Stool Occult Blood Test, also known as the Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT) or Hemoccult Test, is a diagnostic test used to detect the presence of hidden (occult) blood in stool samples. This test is valuable for screening and early detection of gastrointestinal …

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Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), also known as human herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4), is a member of the herpesvirus family and is one of the most common human viruses. EBV is known for its ability to establish lifelong infections in humans, primarily in B lymphocytes (a type …

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HBsAg ELISA-Introduction, Test Results, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

HBsAg ELISA-Introduction, Test Results, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction Hepatitis B is a viral infection that can lead to serious liver-related diseases, including cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Early detection and diagnosis of Hepatitis B are essential for effective management and prevention of transmission. HBsAg ELISA, an acronym for Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Enzyme-Linked …

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HCV ELISA- Introduction, Test Results, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

HCV ELISA- Introduction, Test Results, Test Methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction HCV ELISA stands for Hepatitis C Virus Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. It is a laboratory test used to detect antibodies to the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) in a person’s blood. HCV is a bloodborne virus that can cause chronic liver disease, including cirrhosis and liver …

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HIV 1& 2 -Ag & Ab Screening Test- Introduction, Test Results, Test methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

HIV 1& 2 -Ag & Ab Screening Test- Introduction, Test Results, Test methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The HIV-1 & 2 -Ag & Ab Screening Test is a crucial diagnostic tool used to detect the presence of antibodies (Ab) and antigens (Ag) associated with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system, specifically targeting CD4 …

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HIV, HBsAg and HCV ELISA: Introduction, Test Results, Test methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

HIV, HBsAg and HCV ELISA: Introduction, Test Results, Test methods, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction HIV, HBsAg, and HCV ELISA are three distinct diagnostic tests used in the field of medicine and clinical diagnostics to detect specific viral infections. Here’s an introduction to each of these tests: These ELISA tests are essential tools in the diagnosis and monitoring of …

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Soft Tissue Infections- Introduction, Types, Sign and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

 Introduction Soft tissue infections (STIs) refer to a broad category of infections that affect the body’s soft tissues, including muscles, skin, subcutaneous tissue, and connective tissues. These infections can be caused by various pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and even parasites. They can range in …

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Scrub Typhus IgM Test: Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Testing Scrub Typhus Antibodies (IgM and IgG) at home

Introduction The Scrub Typhus IgM test is a diagnostic assay used to detect IgM antibodies against the bacteria Orientia tsutsugamushi, which causes scrub typhus, a vector-borne infectious disease. It is prevalent in certain parts of Asia, the Pacific Islands, and other regions with heavy vegetation …

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HIV ELISA: Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

HIV ELISA: Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction HIV ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) is a widely used laboratory test for the detection of antibodies to the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) in blood samples. It plays a crucial role in the diagnosis and screening of HIV infection. ELISA is an immunological assay that …

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Gas Gangrene-Introduction, Types, Sign and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

Introduction Gas gangrene, also known as clostridial myonecrosis, is a severe and potentially life-threatening bacterial infection that primarily affects muscle tissues. It is caused by certain species of bacteria from the Clostridium genus, especially Clostridium perfringens. These bacteria are anaerobic, which means they thrive in …

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SARS-CoV-2 PCR Test-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

SARS-CoV-2 PCR Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test is a molecular diagnostic technique used to detect the genetic material of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in individuals suspected of having COVID-19. This test plays a crucial role in identifying active infections …

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Wound Infections- Introduction, Types, Sign and Symptoms, Common Pathogens, Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control, and Keynotes

Introduction Wound infections refer to the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, in a wound or injury site. These infections can occur after various types of wounds, including surgical incisions, traumatic injuries, burns, and chronic ulcers. Wound infections are a common complication …

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Treponema pallidum haemagglutination (TPHA) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Treponema pallidum haemagglutination (TPHA) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Treponema pallidum haemagglutination (TPHA) test is a diagnostic blood test used to detect antibodies against the bacterium, Treponema pallidum, which is responsible for causing syphilis, a sexually transmitted infection (STI). The TPHA test is a specific and sensitive serological assay that aids in …

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CK-NAC Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The CK-NAC (Creatine Kinase with N-Acetyl Cysteine) test, also known as CK-MB-NAC or CK-NAC enzyme assay, is a diagnostic laboratory test used to measure the level of creatine kinase with N-acetyl cysteine in the blood. Creatine kinase (CK) is an enzyme found primarily in …

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Hepatitis C Antibody (anti-HCV) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Hepatitis C Antibody (anti-HCV) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Hepatitis C Antibody (anti-HCV) test is a crucial diagnostic tool used in the field of medicine to detect the presence of antibodies against the Hepatitis C virus (HCV) in a patient’s blood. HCV is a significant viral infection that can cause chronic liver …

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Salmonella Typhi IgM and IgG Tests-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Salmonella Typhi IgM and IgG Tests-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction Salmonella Typhi IgM and IgG tests are diagnostic tools used to detect antibodies in the blood that are specific to the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is the causative agent of typhoid fever, a potentially serious and life-threatening illness. These tests play a crucial role …

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Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) test is a diagnostic blood test that measures the level of parathyroid hormone in a person’s bloodstream. This hormone is primarily produced and regulated by the parathyroid glands, which are four small, pea-sized glands located in the neck behind the …

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Uric Acid (UA) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Uric Acid (UA) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Uric Acid (UA) test is a medical diagnostic procedure used to measure the levels of uric acid in a person’s blood or urine. Uric acid is a waste product that is produced when the body breaks down purines, which are chemical compounds found …

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Mantoux Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Mantoux Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Mantoux test, also known as the Tuberculin Skin Test (TST), is a medical diagnostic tool used to determine whether an individual has been exposed to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis (TB). This test is named after its creator, Charles Mantoux, a …

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Hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Hepatitis B surface antibody test, also known as the anti-HBs test, is a crucial medical examination used to assess a person’s immunity to the Hepatitis B virus (HBV) or to determine the effectiveness of a Hepatitis B vaccination. This test plays a vital …

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BTCT (Bleeding Time & Clotting Time) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

BTCT (Bleeding Time & Clotting Time) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Bleeding Time and Clotting Time (BTCT) test is a pair of medical diagnostic tests that assess the functioning of blood vessels, platelets, and the blood clotting process. These tests are valuable in evaluating a person’s bleeding and clotting tendencies. Here’s an introduction to …

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Hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) test is a medical diagnostic tool used to assess and monitor Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. HBV is a contagious virus that attacks the liver and can lead to both acute and chronic liver diseases. The HBeAg test …

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Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) test is a blood test commonly used in the field of medicine to measure the levels of alpha-fetoprotein in a person’s bloodstream. Alpha-fetoprotein is a specific protein that is produced by the developing fetus during pregnancy. It plays a vital role …

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Mobiluncus: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Mobiluncus is a type of bacteria that can be found in the human vaginal microbiota. It is known for its association with bacterial vaginosis (BV), a common vaginal infection characterized by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota. BV is not caused by a single …

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Malarial Antigen Test-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Malarial Antigen Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Malarial Antigen Test, often referred to as the Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) or Malaria Antigen Rapid Test, is a diagnostic tool used to detect the presence of malaria parasites in a patient’s blood. Malaria is a serious and sometimes life-threatening infectious disease …

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Cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15-3) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15-3) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction of Cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15-3) Test The Cancer Antigen 15-3 (CA 15-3) Test is a blood test used in the field of oncology and cancer management to measure the levels of a specific biomarker called CA 15-3 in a patient’s bloodstream. This test is …

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Free Testosterone Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Free Testosterone Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction A Free Testosterone Test, often referred to as a Free T Test, is a medical diagnostic test used to measure the levels of free testosterone in a person’s bloodstream. Testosterone is a hormone primarily produced in the testicles for men and in smaller amounts …

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Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) test is a crucial diagnostic tool used in the field of clinical laboratory medicine to detect the presence of the Hepatitis B virus (HBV) in an individual’s bloodstream. Hepatitis B is a viral infection that primarily affects the …

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Testosterone Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Testosterone Test--Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction A testosterone test is a medical procedure used to measure the levels of testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, in a person’s blood. Testosterone plays a crucial role in the development of male reproductive tissues, such as the testes and prostate, and it also …

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Cladosporium: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Cladosporium is a genus of fungi that belongs to the phylum Ascomycota. It is a diverse and widespread group of molds that can be found in various environments, including soil, plants, decaying organic matter, and indoor spaces. Cladosporium species (they) are known for their …

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Cancer antigen 125 (CA125) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Cancer antigen 125 (CA125) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Cancer antigen 125 (CA125) test is a blood test that measures the level of a protein called CA125 in the bloodstream. CA125 is a tumor marker, which means that it is a substance produced by certain types of cells, including ovarian cancer cells, …

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Thyroglobulin (Tg) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Thyroglobulin (Tg) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Thyroglobulin (Tg) test is a medical diagnostic tool used to measure the levels of thyroglobulin in a person’s blood. Thyroglobulin is a protein produced by the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of the neck. The thyroid gland plays …

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Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) test is a medical diagnostic tool used to measure the levels of follicle-stimulating hormone in the blood. FSH is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain. It plays a crucial …

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Carbamazepine Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Carbamazepine Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Carbamazepine Test is a medical diagnostic procedure used to measure the level of carbamazepine in a person’s blood. Carbamazepine is an anticonvulsant medication primarily prescribed to treat epilepsy, certain types of seizures, and bipolar disorder. It works by stabilizing the electrical activity in …

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Allergy Screening Assay-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Allergy Screening Assay-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction An Allergy Screening Assay is a diagnostic test designed to identify specific allergens that trigger allergic reactions in individuals. Allergies are abnormal immune responses to substances that are usually harmless to most people. These substances, known as allergens, can include pollen, dust mites, pet …

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Procalcitonin (PCT) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Procalcitonin (PCT) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Procalcitonin (PCT) test is a medical diagnostic test used to measure the levels of procalcitonin in the blood. Procalcitonin is a precursor protein to the hormone calcitonin, which is primarily involved in regulating calcium metabolism. However, procalcitonin itself is not a hormone; rather, …

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Rheumatoid Factor (RF) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Rheumatoid Factor (RF) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Rheumatoid Factor (RF) test is a medical diagnostic test used to detect the presence of an antibody called rheumatoid factor in the blood. This antibody is commonly found in the blood of individuals who have rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disorder that primarily …

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Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA) test is a medical laboratory test used to measure the levels of a protein called carcinoembryonic antigen in the blood. CEA is a glycoprotein that is normally produced during fetal development, but its production decreases significantly after birth. It is …

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Tacrolimus Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Tacrolimus Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Tacrolimus test, also known as a Tacrolimus blood test or Tacrolimus level test, is a medical diagnostic procedure used to measure the concentration of tacrolimus in a person’s blood. Tacrolimus is a potent immunosuppressive medication commonly prescribed to organ transplant recipients to prevent …

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Valproic Acid Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Valproic Acid Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Valproic Acid Test is a medical diagnostic procedure used to measure the level of valproic acid in a person’s blood. Valproic acid is a medication primarily prescribed to treat certain seizure disorders, such as epilepsy, as well as bipolar disorder and migraines. It …

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Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Mucoid lactose fermenting (MLF) colony of Klebsiella pneumoniae and non-lactose fermenting (NLF) colony of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia on MacConkey medium of clinical specimen-sputum culture

Introduction Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is a Gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the class Gammaproteobacteria. It is an opportunistic pathogen known for its ability to cause infections, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems or underlying health conditions. The bacterium was initially considered to be of low …

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Estradiol (E2) Test: Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Estradiol (E2) Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Estradiol (E2) test is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the levels of estradiol in the blood. Estradiol is the primary and most potent form of estrogen, a hormone that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, particularly those related to the …

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Bacteroides: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Bacteroides is a genus of bacteria that belong to the Bacteroidaceae family. These bacteria are anaerobic, which means they thrive in environments with little to no oxygen. Bacteroides species (they) are commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals, where they play …

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Anti-CCP Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Anti-CCP Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Anti-CCP (Anti-Cyclic Citrullinated Peptide) test is a diagnostic tool used in the field of rheumatology and autoimmune diseases. It is primarily used to assist in the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the joints but can also have …

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Serum Cortisol Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Serum Cortisol Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Serum Cortisol Test is a medical diagnostic tool used to measure the level of cortisol in the bloodstream. Cortisol is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands, which are located on top of the kidneys. It plays a crucial role in various …

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Lithium Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Lithium Test- Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction In the medical field, a lithium blood test is used to measure the concentration of lithium in a person’s blood. Lithium is commonly prescribed as a mood stabilizer for individuals with bipolar disorder. Monitoring the levels of lithium in the blood is essential to …

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Prolactin (PRL) Test: Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Prolactin (PRL) Test Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Prolactin (PRL) test is a medical diagnostic test used to measure the levels of prolactin, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland in the brain. Prolactin plays a vital role in various physiological processes, primarily associated with reproductive health and lactation (milk production). …

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Fonsecaea: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Fonsecaea: Introduction, Morphology, Pathogenicity, Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Keynotes

Introduction Fonsecaea is a genus of fungi commonly associated with human and animal infections. It belongs to the class Eurotiomycetes and the order Chaetothyriales. The most clinically relevant species within this genus is Fonsecaea pedrosoi, which is known to cause chromoblastomycosis, a chronic and localized …

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Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The Luteinizing Hormone (LH) test is a medical diagnostic tool used to measure the levels of luteinizing hormone in a person’s blood or urine. LH is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating …

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Peritoneal Fluid Culture and Sensitivity: Introduction, Report, Clinical Significance, Common Pathogens, and Keynotes

Introduction Peritoneal fluid culture and sensitivity is a medical diagnostic procedure used to identify and determine the susceptibility of microorganisms present in the peritoneal fluid. Peritoneal fluid is a sterile fluid that fills the peritoneal cavity, which is the space within the abdomen that surrounds …

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DHEA Sulfate Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

DHEA Sulfate Test-Introduction, Test Result, Unit, Normal Range, Test Method, Clinical Significance, and Keynotes

Introduction The DHEA sulfate test, also known as the dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate test, is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the levels of DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S) in the blood. DHEA-S is a steroid hormone produced primarily by the adrenal glands, which are located on top of …

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Ascitic Fluid Culture and Sensitivity: Introduction, Report, Clinical Significance, Common Pathogens, and Keynotes

Introduction Ascitic fluid culture and sensitivity is a medical diagnostic procedure used to identify and analyze bacterial or fungal infections within the peritoneal cavity. The peritoneal cavity is the space within the abdomen that contains various organs such as the liver, intestines, and spleen. Ascitic …

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Clinical Laboratory Gallery: Introduction, Contents, and Brief Description of Photos

Wet Mount Microscopy-Ready slide for observation

Introduction ‘Clinical Laboratory Gallery’ is a collection of genuine photos regarding stream of Clinical Laboratory like Stool and Urine Section (SUS), Phlebotomy, Clinical Haematology, Clinical Biochemistry, Blood Banking and Transfusion medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, Cytology and Histopathology, and Molecular Biology. Contents Collection of images are …

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