Laboratory Instruments and Equipment: Introduction, Name List, and Short Description

Introduction of Laboratory Instruments and Equipment

Laboratory Instruments and Equipment make laboratory work easy and fast. Here we discuss the instruments and equipment of the Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine that includes Clinical Haematology, Clinical Biochemistry, Histopathology and Cytology, Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Blood Banking and Transfusion Medicine, Molecular Biology, Clinical Parasitology, and such related streams.

Name List of Laboratory Instruments and Equipment

• Centrifuge
• Sero-fuge Centrifuge
• Microhematocrit Centrifuge
• Sysmex XS-1000i
• Roller Mixer in Haematology for EDTA tube blood mixing
• Coagulometer
• Bilirubinometer
• Electronic Balance
• Slide Warmer
• Water bath
• Refrigerator and Freezer
• Ultra-Low Temperature Freezer
• Deionized Water and Ion Exchange plant
• Ultra-Filtration Plant
• Kent technology for drinking water purification
• ERBA XL 640-Liquid Biochemistry Analyzer
• VITRO 250 Automation in Biochemistry
• VITROS-ECi automation in Immunodiagnostic Laboratory
• Spectrophotometer
• Vortex mixer or Cyclomixer or Test Tube Shaker
• Nephelometer
• NycoCard READER
• pH Meter
• Hot Air Oven
• Refractometer
• Compound Microscope
• Rotor Microtome
• Sliding Microtome
• Automatic Tissue Processor
• Paraffin Dispense
• LAF Chamber
• Biosafety Cabinet (BSC)
• Electric Loop Sterilizer
• BD BACTEC
• Incubator
• CO2 Incubator
• Automatic Disk Dispenser
• Fluorescence Microscope
• Urea Breath TestELISA Reader
• Cold Room
• Orbital Shaker
• GeneXpert
• Flow Cytometer
• Thermocycler
• Inverted Microscope

Centrifuge

A centrifuge is a laboratory instrument that is used to separate substances of different densities or particle sizes. It works by applying a centrifugal force to a sample, causing the denser components to move to the bottom of the sample tube, while the less dense components move to the top. It is used in Clinical Laboratories for the separation of serum or plasma, urinary sediment for urine microscopy, and separation of various components of other body fluids.

Centrifuges come in many different types, including microcentrifuges, ultracentrifuges, and refrigerated centrifuges. Microcentrifuges are used for small volumes of samples, while ultracentrifuges are used for larger volumes and can reach very high speeds. Refrigerated centrifuges are used for temperature-sensitive samples.

Centrifuges are used in a variety of applications, including in the medical field for blood separation, in molecular biology for DNA and RNA isolation, in chemistry for the purification of compounds, and in environmental science for water and soil analysis.

When using a centrifuge, it is important to follow proper safety procedures, such as wearing protective equipment and ensuring that the tubes are properly balanced in the centrifuge rotor to avoid accidents.

Sero-fuge Centrifuge

The BD Sero-Fuge is normally applied in the Blood Banking and Transfusion Medicine Department for blood grouping, Rh- typing, cross-matching, and other cell-washing steps.

Microhematocrit Centrifuge

Microhematocrit centrifuge is used for the determination of packed cell volume erythrocytes (red blood cells) in blood and for the separation of micro volumes of blood and solutions.

Sysmex XS-1000i

Sysmex XS-1000i is a fluorescence flow cytometry for high-quality analysis 5-part differential analyzer in Clinical Hematology which requires very low aspiration volume (approx. 20 μL). It makes it easy to phlebotomists to draw low-volume blood samples from neonates and pediatric patients. Diagnostic parameters are white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells (RBCs) hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (HCT), mean cell volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), platelet (PLT), red cell distribution width-standard deviation ( RDW-SD), red cell distribution width – coefficient of variation (RDW-CV), Platelet distribution width (PDW), mean platelet volume (MPV), platelet large cell ratio (P-LCR, PCT), percentage of neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.

Roller Mixer in Haematology for EDTA tube blood mixing

Roller Mixer in Haematology for EDTA tube blood mixing is equipment to make blood homogeneous that is a shake-less and gentle mixing process. It is essential to pre-process for the perfect result of a complete blood cell (CBC) count.

Coagulometer

A coagulometer in Haematology is an analyzer used to test the coagulation efficiency of patient blood to diagnose and assess bleeding disorders, e.g. hemophilia, to monitor patients who take anticoagulant medicines such as aspirin, heparin, or warfarin, and prior to surgery to know the blood clotting status. The most commonly used coagulation assay is prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT).

Bilirubinometer

Bilirubinometer measures the minimum concentration of total bilirubin from plasma by applying a direct Spectrophotometry system that is a quick and effective procedure to monitor neonatal jaundice.

A bilirubinometer is a medical device used to measure the level of bilirubin in the blood. Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment that is produced during the breakdown of red blood cells. It is normally excreted from the body through the liver and bile ducts.

An increase in the level of bilirubin in the blood can lead to jaundice, a condition where the skin and eyes turn yellow. This can occur due to a variety of reasons, such as liver disease, hemolytic anemia, or obstruction of the bile ducts.

Bilirubinometers work by shining light through a small sample of blood or serum and measuring the amount of light that is absorbed. The amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the level of bilirubin in the sample.

There are two types of bilirubinometers: transcutaneous and serum/plasma bilirubinometers. Transcutaneous bilirubinometers use a sensor that is placed on the skin to measure the level of bilirubin without the need for a blood sample. This type of bilirubinometer is often used in newborns to screen for jaundice.

Serum/plasma bilirubinometers, on the other hand, require a small sample of blood or serum to be taken from the patient. This sample is then placed into the bilirubinometer, and the level of bilirubin is measured.

Bilirubinometers are important tools in the diagnosis and management of conditions related to bilirubin metabolism. They are widely used in hospitals and medical clinics, particularly in the neonatal setting where early detection of jaundice is critical for preventing complications.

Electronic Balance

Electronic balance is an instrument used in the accurate measurement of the weight of materials commonly during reagent, stain, and culture media preparation.

An electronic balance, also known as a digital balance, is a laboratory instrument used to measure the mass of an object. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic force compensation, where an electromagnetic field is used to counteract the weight of the object being measured, providing an accurate and precise measurement of its mass.

Electronic balances are used in a wide variety of laboratory settings, from analytical chemistry to biology and physics. They are commonly used in analytical chemistry for precise measurements of chemicals and reagents, as well as in biology for weighing samples such as cells and tissues.

Electronic balances typically have a weighing capacity ranging from a few milligrams to several kilograms and can measure weights to within a few decimal places of accuracy. They usually come with a built-in digital display for easy reading of the measurement results and may have additional features such as the tare function, which allows the user to zero out the weight of a container, and a calibration function, which ensures the accuracy of the balance over time.

To ensure accurate measurements, electronic balances should be calibrated regularly and should be operated in a controlled environment free from vibrations and drafts. Proper handling and care of the balance are also important, as rough handling or exposure to extreme temperatures or humidity can affect its performance.

Slide Warmer

It facilitates tissue mounting in Histopathology and slide staining procedures and is specifically designed for Haematology and Microbiology Laboratories.

A slide warmer is a laboratory instrument used to heat and maintain a constant temperature for microscope slides, typically used in histology and pathology. It is used to help prepare samples for examination under a microscope, by promoting consistent adherence of the tissue sections to the slides and improving the accuracy of staining procedures.

Slide warmers are designed to accommodate one or more microscope slides and heat them to a specific temperature range. The temperature range typically ranges from ambient temperature to 70-80°C, with a uniform temperature distribution across the surface of the slide. This ensures that the sample is consistently heated, preventing the tissue sections from detaching or becoming distorted.

Slide warmers are commonly used in histology and pathology laboratories, where tissue samples are prepared for examination under a microscope. They are also used in research laboratories, where samples may need to be heated or dried for various experiments.

Slide warmers are available in a range of sizes and designs, from compact models that can accommodate a few slides to larger models that can hold several dozen slides. Some models may also have additional features, such as timers or programmable temperature control, to allow for precise control of the heating process.

Overall, slide warmers are an important tool for ensuring accurate and consistent preparation of samples in histology and pathology, as well as in other areas of laboratory research.

Water bath

It is used in the Clinical Laboratory normally as a heat source for flammable chemicals facilitates chemical reactions, and heats up chemical reagents.

A water bath is a laboratory instrument used to incubate samples in a temperature-controlled water environment. It is commonly used in microbiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology applications, where samples need to be incubated at a specific temperature for a certain period of time.

Water baths consist of a metal container filled with water that is heated to the desired temperature using an electric heating element. The temperature is usually controlled using a thermostat or digital temperature controller, which ensures that the water temperature remains constant over time. Samples are placed in containers, such as test tubes or beakers, and submerged in the water bath.

Water baths come in a variety of sizes and shapes, from small bench-top models that can accommodate a few test tubes to large models that can hold several dozen samples. Some models may also have additional features, such as shaking or circulating capabilities, which can help to improve mixing and heat distribution within the water bath.

Water baths are particularly useful in applications such as bacterial and cell culture, enzyme assays, and DNA amplification techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In these applications, the temperature of the water bath is critical for maintaining the viability of the samples and ensuring accurate results.

Overall, water baths are an essential tool in many laboratory settings, providing precise and reliable temperature control for a wide range of applications.

Refrigerator and Freezer

A refrigerator and freezer are common laboratory instruments used for the storage of temperature-sensitive samples and reagents. They are essential for maintaining the integrity of biological and chemical samples and are commonly used in applications such as microbiology, genetics, and biochemistry.

Refrigerators and freezers work by using a refrigeration system to remove heat from the interior of the unit, thus cooling the contents of the unit to a desired temperature. In a refrigerator, the temperature is typically maintained at around 2-8°C, while in a freezer, the temperature is maintained at below 0°C.

There are different types of refrigerators and freezers, including:

1. Standard refrigerators and freezers – These are the most common type of laboratory refrigerator and freezer, and they come in various sizes to suit different laboratory needs. They are used for the storage of samples, reagents, and media that need to be maintained at a specific temperature.
2. Ultra-low temperature freezers – These are used for the storage of samples that require very low temperatures, typically below -80°C. They are commonly used for the storage of biological samples, such as cell lines, tissues, and blood.
3. Explosion-proof refrigerators and freezers – These are used in laboratories where flammable materials are used. They are designed to prevent explosions by controlling the temperature and humidity of the unit and preventing the buildup of flammable gases.

Refrigerators and freezers are essential in laboratories where samples and reagents need to be stored at specific temperatures to maintain their integrity. Proper maintenance and cleaning of these instruments are important to ensure they function correctly and provide the necessary storage conditions for the samples. Regular calibration and temperature monitoring are also important to ensure the reliability and accuracy of these instruments.

Ultra-Low Temperature Freezer

Ultra-low temperature freezer (ULT freezer) is typically used for the storage of drugs (antimicrobial disks), microbial isolates or ATCC strains for long-term preservation in Microbiology, patient serum preservation for a long term, enzymes or calibrators in Biochemistry, and other relevant chemicals.

An ultra-low temperature (ULT) freezer is a laboratory instrument used to store biological samples, such as cell cultures, tissues, and blood, at very low temperatures typically below -80°C. ULT freezers are essential for maintaining the viability of these temperature-sensitive samples for extended periods of time.

ULT freezers work by using a refrigeration system to remove heat from the interior of the unit, thus cooling the contents of the unit to a desired temperature. They typically have a capacity of several hundred liters and are designed to maintain a temperature of -80°C or lower.

ULT freezers are commonly used in applications such as genetics, biochemistry, and cell biology. They are essential for the long-term storage of biological samples and play a critical role in research and clinical laboratories.

There are several factors to consider when selecting a ULT freezer, including the freezer’s capacity, temperature range, energy efficiency, and ease of use. Additionally, it is important to regularly monitor the temperature of the freezer to ensure that it is maintaining the desired temperature and to perform routine maintenance to ensure its proper function.

Deionized Water and Ion Exchange plant

Deionized Water is the final product of the ion exchange process where water is passed through beds of ion-exchange beads. When the water reaches these beads, the ions are transferred from the water to the beads. They are then replaced in the water by hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.

Deionized water, also known as demineralized water, is water that has had its mineral ions removed through a process called ion exchange. This process involves passing the water through an ion exchange resin, which exchanges positively charged ions, such as calcium and magnesium, and negatively charged ions, such as chloride and sulfate, with hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. The result is water that is highly purified and free of mineral ions.

Ion exchange plants are used to produce deionized water on a large scale. These plants consist of several components, including an ion exchange column, a resin tank, a regenerant tank, and a control system. The ion exchange column contains the ion exchange resin, which removes the mineral ions from the water. The resin tank holds the resin and is used to regenerate the resin when it becomes exhausted. The regenerant tank holds the chemicals used to regenerate the resin. The control system monitors and controls the flow of water through the system.

Deionized water is commonly used in laboratory and industrial applications where highly purified water is required, such as in chemical analysis, pharmaceutical production, and electronic manufacturing. It is also used in medical and dental equipment, as well as in the production of cosmetics and food products.

Overall, deionized water and ion exchange plants are essential components of many laboratory and industrial processes, providing highly purified water that is free of mineral ions and suitable for a wide range of applications.

Ultra-Filtration Plant

Ultrafiltration (UF) plant is a membrane filtration process where hydrostatic pressure forces water through a semi-permeable membrane. The pore size of the used membrane is usually 103 – 106 Daltons which helps to stop passing suspended solids, bacteria, viruses, endotoxins, and other pathogens to produce water with very high purity and low silt density.

An ultrafiltration (UF) plant is a type of water treatment system that uses a semi-permeable membrane to remove suspended solids, bacteria, viruses, and other contaminants from water. UF plants are commonly used in industrial and laboratory settings where high-quality water is required for a variety of applications.

The UF plant consists of several components, including a feed pump, a membrane module, and a backwash system. The feed pump is used to push the water through the membrane module, which contains the semi-permeable membrane. The membrane module is designed to trap and remove the suspended solids and contaminants from the water while allowing clean water to pass through. The backwash system is used to periodically clean the membrane to maintain its efficiency.

UF plants are effective in removing suspended solids, bacteria, and viruses from water, and can produce high-quality water with low turbidity and total suspended solids. They are commonly used in the food and beverage industry, pharmaceuticals, and water treatment plants. UF plants are also used in research and laboratory applications where high-quality water is required for experiments and analysis.

Overall, UF plants are an important tool for producing high-quality water in a wide range of industrial and laboratory applications. Their efficiency in removing suspended solids, bacteria, and viruses from the water makes them an essential component of many water treatment systems.

Kent technology for drinking water purification

Kent technology for drinking water purification is applying very useful methods for water purification and they are reverse osmosis (RO), ultrafiltration (UF), and ultra-violet (UV) radiation.

Kent Technology is a popular water purification technology developed by the Indian company Kent RO Systems Ltd. It is designed to provide safe and healthy drinking water by removing impurities, contaminants, and dissolved substances from the water.

The Kent Technology for drinking water purification uses a combination of processes including UV (ultraviolet) and RO (reverse osmosis) to purify the water. The RO process is used to remove dissolved solids, while the UV process is used to kill bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that may be present in the water. The technology also incorporates a sediment filter and activated carbon filter to remove suspended particles and chemical impurities such as chlorine, pesticides, and other harmful substances.

The Kent Technology uses a multi-stage filtration process to ensure that the water is free from impurities and safe for consumption. The process includes pre-filtration, sediment filtration, activated carbon filtration, RO filtration, and UV disinfection. The system is also equipped with a TDS (total dissolved solids) controller, which adjusts the TDS level of the purified water to ensure that it is within the safe and healthy range for consumption.

Kent Technology for drinking water purification is widely used in homes, offices, and industries across India and other countries. It has become a popular choice for many people due to its effectiveness in removing impurities, contaminants, and dissolved substances from the water, as well as its easy installation and maintenance.

Overall, the Kent Technology for drinking water purification is a reliable and effective system for providing safe and healthy drinking water. Its advanced filtration process ensures that the water is free from impurities and contaminants, making it a popular choice for households and industries alike.

ERBA XL 640-Liquid Biochemistry Analyzer

It is a fully automated Clinical Chemistry liquid analyzer with a throughput of 640 tests per hour with the ion-selective electrode (ISE) for sodium, potassium, chloride, and lithium assays diffraction grating for high resolution.

The ERBA XL 640 is a fully automated, random-access liquid biochemistry analyzer that is designed for use in clinical laboratories. It is manufactured by Transasia Bio-Medicals Ltd, an Indian company that specializes in the production of medical equipment.

The ERBA XL 640 liquid biochemistry analyzer uses the principle of photometry to measure the concentration of various analytes in biological fluids such as blood, serum, and urine. The analyzer is capable of performing a wide range of tests, including tests for liver function, kidney function, glucose, cholesterol, and electrolytes.

The ERBA XL 640 liquid biochemistry analyzer is a high-throughput system that can process up to 640 samples per hour, making it suitable for use in busy clinical laboratories. It is equipped with an automatic sample loading system, which allows for continuous sample processing without the need for manual intervention.

The analyzer has a user-friendly interface with a large touchscreen display that allows for easy navigation and operation. It also features a built-in barcode reader that can be used to scan sample and reagent barcodes for accurate sample tracking and traceability.

The ERBA XL 640 liquid biochemistry analyzer is designed to provide accurate and reliable results, with a high level of precision and accuracy. It is a reliable system that is widely used in clinical laboratories around the world and is considered to be one of the leading liquid biochemistry analyzers on the market today.

Overall, the ERBA XL 640 liquid biochemistry analyzer is a powerful and reliable system that is designed for use in busy clinical laboratories. Its high throughput, automation, and accuracy make it an essential tool for performing a wide range of liquid biochemistry tests, and it has become a popular choice for healthcare professionals around the world.

VITRO 250 Automation in Biochemistry

This is a fully Automatic Dry Chemistry Analyzer which is based on micro slide technology which minimizes interference from hemolysis, lipemia, and even icterus.

VITROS-ECi automation in Immunodiagnostic Laboratory

The VITROS ECiQ System gives a broad menu of routine and specialty testing to assist you to achieve fast, accurate results. This analyzer also provides reliability and affordability in a small footprint. The system offers our lab a comprehensive menu of routine and specialty immunodiagnostic assaying with a throughput of up to 90 tests per hour in a compact footprint. It is designed with INTELLICHECK® Technology that facilitates full monitoring for specimen and reagent processing, it improves process control so we can have confidence in every result. VITROS ECiQ System Test Menu-

1. Anemia-Ferritin, Folate, and Vitamin B12
2. Diabetes-C-Peptide,Insulin
3. Nutritional Assessment-Ferritin, Folate, and Vitamin B12
4. Reproductive Endocrinology-Estradiol-FSH, LH, Progesterone, Prolactin, Testosterone, Total ß-hCG Generation II, TSH
5. Bone disease-Intact PTH, NTx, and Vitamin D
   6.Cradiac-CK-MB,hsTroponin (D),Myoglobin,NT-proBNP, and Troponin I ES
6. Infectious Disease-Anti-HAV IgM,Anti-HAV Total,Anti-HBc,Anti-HBc IgM,Anti-HBe,Anti-HBs,Anti-HCV,Anti-HIV 1+2,Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG,Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG Quantitative,Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Total,Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Total Nucleocapsid,HBeAg,HBsAg,HIV Combo,Rubella IgG, and Syphilis (D)
7. Oncology-AFP,CA,15-3™,CA 19-9™,CA 125 II™,CEA,Free PSA (D),PSA
8. Prenatal-Anti-HIV 1+2, HBsAg, HIV Combo, Rubella IgG, and Total ß-hCG Generation II
9. Sepsis-Procalcitonin
10. Thyroid/Metabolic-Cortisol,Free T3,,Free T4,T3 Uptake,Tg (D),Total T3,Total T4, and TSH
11. Inflammatory-Procalcitonin

Spectrophotometer

It is a procedure for determining how much light is reflected by a solution by measuring the strength of light as a light beam passes through the sample solution. The basic theory is that light is absorbed or emitted over a certain wavelength spectrum by each compound. It is an analytical instrument applied for the objective calculation of all spectrums of light i.e. visible light, UV light, or infrared light emission or reflection and thus it measures intensity as a function of the wavelength of the light source. The main difference between a Colorimeter and a Spectrophotometer is a colorimeter offers a fixed wavelength, usually in the visible range of the spectrum whereas a spectrophotometer offers a wide variable wavelength, ranging in UV, infrared red, and visible light.

Vortex mixer or Cyclomixer or Test Tube Shaker

It is a simple device used commonly in laboratories to mix liquid and it is used commonly in Bioscience and Microbiology Laboratories.

Nephelometer

It is an instrument dedicated to the measurement of the turbidity or cloudiness of a sample. Turbidity is usually caused by the presence of insoluble particles suspended in a liquid or gas and it is used to measure light scattering (light reflected off the particles in a sample), not the attenuation of light (absorbance) caused by turbidity. The assays that can be measured by a nephelometer are-

Automated drug solubility screenings-
Microbial growth kinetics-Antimicrobial agents and their effects on microbial growth
Quantification of proteins-Determine concentration of serum immunoglobulins (IgM, IgG, and IgA), complements (C3 and C4), CRP, transferrin, albumin, and alpha-1-antitrypsin

Monitoring of polymerization- to quantify macromolecules, e.g. by monitoring a polymerization reaction

NycoCard READER

It is a small battery-powered instrument, designed to measure all NycoCard products (HbA1c test, D-Dimer test) it has two units: the instrument box, which is the operational and calculating unit, and the Reader pen, which detects the signal. The working principle of NycoCard READER-The device has a central well for sample and reagent application, which is shaped to fit the Reader pen. When the pen is put over the sample and the pen sleeve is pushed down, the measurement begins automatically and the test result appears on the display. The available tests are –

• NycoCard CRP test
• NycoCard D-Dimer test
• NycoCard HbA1c test
• NycoCard U-Albumin test

pH Meter

A pH meter is an electronic device that is used to measure the acidity and alkalinity of a solution. pH stands for the potential of hydrogen or the power of hydrogen. pH Meter calibration is mandatory at regular intervals to maintain its accuracy.

Hot Air Oven

A hot air oven is the most common method of sterilization in the laboratory working on dry heat. Sterilization is the process of removing or destroying all microorganisms including viruses, bacteria, and their spores from the article or surface without destroying their quality and quantity. It is a physical method of sterilization due to dry heat. Factors influencing sterilization by heat are the nature of heat i.e dry or moist, temperature and time, number of microorganisms, nature of microorganisms, type of microorganism, and presence of organic material. Mode of action: protein denaturation, oxidative destruction of essential cell constituents, and toxic effects of elevated levels of electrolytes. It works on the principle of conduction where heat is absorbed by the exterior surface of an item and then passed onward to the next layer.

Refractometer

A refractometer is a device that is used for the measurement of the index of refraction for a material, which could be a gas, a liquid, or a transparent solid such as glass. It is commonly used for determining the specific gravity of urine, and the salinity of water in aquariums or aquaponic systems.

Compound Microscope

The sizes of microbes and blood cells are as follows-

S.No.	Name of microbes/ blood cells	Size
1.	Bacteria (cocci)	0.5-1.0 µm
2.	Bacteria (bacilli)	1-10 µm×3-10µm
3.	Virus (smallest-Parvovirus)	20 nm
4.	Virus (largest-Poxvirus)	300 nm
5.	Parasites (Most protozoa)	50 µm
6.	Protozoa except for Balantidium coli	≥100 µm
7.	Parasites-Helminthes sizes are variable-Cestodes	1 mm to several meters in length
8.	Parasites-Helminthes sizes are variable-Nematodes vary in size	5 mm to even 1 meter
9.	Fungus-Yeast-like appearance	2-30 µm
10.	Fungus-mold appearance	2-5 µm
11.	Fungus-Spherical-like appearance	5-300 µm
12.	Red blood cells (RBCs)	7-8 µm
13.	Platelets	2-4 µm
14.	Neutrophil	12-15 µm
15.	Lymphocyte	6-18 µm
16.	Monocyte	16-22 µm
17.	Eosinophils	12-15 µm
18.	Basophil	8-10 µm

Are those microbes and blood cells visible to the naked eye?

Absolutely not—The microscope is the instrument whose magnification provides and enables us to see microorganisms and blood cells and their structures otherwise invisible to the naked eye. The magnitudes attainable by microscopes range from 100 X-10,000,000X. The use of a compound microscope is common to cover a wide range of purposes but still, viruses are not observable under this due to being nanometer in size hence there is a need for an electron microscope to cover them.

A compound microscope consists of two sets of convex lenses. A lens with a short aperture and short focal length facing the object is called an objective. Another set of the lens of relatively moderate focal length and large aperture facing the eye is called the eyepiece. The objective and the eyepiece are placed coaxially at the two ends of a tube. The object is placed between the center of curvature and the focus of the objective – it forms a real, inverted, and magnified image on the other side of the objective. This image acts as an object for the eyepiece which then acts as a simple microscope to produce a virtual, erect, and magnified image as shown in the picture.

Rotary Microtome

It is a type of microtome that is a Histopathology laboratory instrument. It is widely used for cutting sections of tissues into thin slices. This allows for the preparation of samples for observation under transmitted light or electron radiation. It has sharp metal, glass, and diamond blades which depend on the type of specimen and the desired thickness. The weight of a Rotary Microtome is approximately 25 kilograms with dimensions 460 x 500 x 300 (W x D x H) where all values are in millimeters (mm). It is called a rotary microtome due to having a rotor to move the internal mechanism for the cutting applications as shown in the image.

Sliding Microtome

It is another type of microtome that is recommended as a standard sectioning instrument specially designed for Research Laboratories for cutting sections of paraffin as well as celloidin-embedded specimens. It has the advantage of vertical object feed by a Micrometer Screw and Cylinder so rigidly held that perfect immobility under the knife is confirmed, even when cutting relatively large, hard, and homogeneous specimens.

Automatic Tissue Processor

Automatic Tissue Processor is an automation in the histopathology laboratory which automatically processes from fixation to decalcification. It contains a number of glass beakers for filling different processing chemicals, a timing disc that rotates after specific intervals, and a specimen container holding assembly. It is one of the useful pieces of equipment required in histopathology for processing organs and tissues prior to being embedded in paraffin wax which is comprised of an electronic control panel for adjusting the time of specimen immersion in each chemical as shown in the picture.

Paraffin Dispenser

It is applied in the histopathology section for the on-demand delivery of molten wax. It heats wax to a liquid condition and provides convenient wax.

LAF Chamber

LAF stands for laminar airflow. A LAF Chamber or cabinet is a carefully enclosed bench designed to prevent contamination of semiconductor wafers (electronics), biological specimens, or any particle-sensitive materials where the air is passed through a HEPA ((High-Efficiency Particulates Air) filter which removes all airborne contamination to maintain sterile conditions.

Biosafety Cabinet (BSC)

It is an enclosed, ventilated laboratory workstation for safely working with materials contaminated with pathogens. A HEPA filter is applied to remove particles like fungus, bacteria, viruses, etc. from the cabinet’s interior. It is also known as the biological safety cabinet or microbiological safety cabinet. It is of the following types-

1. Biosafety Cabinet Class I
2. Biosafety Cabinet Class II
3. Biosafety Cabinet Class III

Electric Loop Sterilizer

It is a stainless steel design long-lasting double tube system Sterilization and the most suitable for the sterilization of inoculation loops, inoculating wires, and needles in clinical microbiology.

BD BACTEC

BD BACTEC is an automation in clinical microbiology for the rapid detection of microbes from clinical specimens, especially from blood cultures. The BD BACTEC™ bottle portfolio gives a full line of blood culture media developed specifically for the detection of bacteria (aerobes, anaerobes, and mycobacteria), and fungi (yeast and molds) and to help improve time to detect and organism recovery.

Incubator

The incubator is an electrical device and it is the most common equipment in Clinical Microbiology Laboratory in which the incubation process is performed which conditions an enclosure to a predetermined temperature. It provides and maintains all artificial optimal conditions for the growth of microbial culture as well as cell and tissue culture as shown in the figure.

CO2 Incubator

In CO2 incubators also known as gassed incubators, an atmosphere is created that is as natural as possible to develop cell and tissue cultures. This way of cultivating living organisms is called in vitro and is the main application for CO2 incubators and it is the most frequently used in medical research and the pharmaceutical industry.

Automatic Disk Dispenser

It is used to accurately place antimicrobial susceptibility discs onto sensitivity testing media ( e.g. Muller-Hinton agar ) of choice when carrying out manual Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) methods.

Fluorescence Microscope

It is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence and phosphorescence instead of, or in addition to, reflection and absorption to study the properties of organic or inorganic substances. 

Urea Breath Test

It is a rapid and non-invasive assay for the detection of Helicobacter pylori. The patient ingests radioactively labeled (13C or 14C) Urea in a capsule form. If the infection is present, the urease produced by H. pylori hydrolyzes the urea to form ammonia and labeled bicarbonate that is exhaled as CO2. The labeled CO2 is tested either by a scintillation counter or a special spectrometer.

ELISA Reader

An ELISA stands for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The ELISA reader is equipment in the Clinical Microbiology and Serology Section that is manipulated to read the fluorescent, chemiluminescent, or chromogenic response of the ELISA in a 96-well plate. The instrument is outlined to fit standard 96-well plates and will provide quantitative statistics about the extent of the response for every individual well of the plate. This allows up to 96 different conditions to be tested at once. The ELISA reader is both a fluorimeter and a spectrophotometer. Most ELISA readers also are available with software that transfers the raw intensity values into quantitative curves including dilution information and error. The software is furnished with calibration curves to ensure that the highest standard of quality and reproducibility is linked up every time the instrument is used.

Cold Room

The cold room is a cold storage facility that follows the cold chain. The facility store refrigerated products having a temperature range of 2-8  °C. It is applied in various sectors like food service, specialty retail, process cooling (laboratory, medical, fruit ripening, etc.), convenience stores, discount stores, and pharmacies. But here it is used in Bood Banking and Transfusion Medicine for storage of whole blood and packed red blood cell bags as shown in the picture.

Orbital Shaker

The orbital shaker is an instrument that is ideal for a variety of general-purpose shaking applications in various streams like cell culture, serology RPR card test specimens and reagent mixing, bacterial growth and suspension, staining, and washing procedures. This type has special types of features i.e. a circular shaking motion with low to high speed with fewer vibrations, ideal for culturing micro-organisms.

GeneXpert

It is a molecular test for tuberculosis diagnosis by detecting the presence of an etiological agent i.e. M. tuberculosis (bacteria), as well as assaying for resistance to the drug rifampicin. GeneXpert is a gold standard test for the diagnosis of tuberculosis.

Flow Cytometer

A flow cytometer is an instrument that is used for the rapid multi-parametric analysis of single cells in solution. It utilizes lasers as light sources to produce both scattered and fluorescent light signals that are read by detectors such as photodiodes or photomultiplier tubes. It is also a powerful tool that has uses in multiple disciplines such as immunology, virology, molecular biology, cancer biology, etc.

Thermocycler

Thermocycler or PCR machines or nucleic acid amplifiers an integral to life science research as well as clinical diagnostic laboratory. In molecular biology, it is applied for DNA sequencing, cloning, generation of probes, quantification of DNA and RNA, studying patterns of gene expression, detection of sequence-tagged sites, and many more methods.

Inverted Microscope

It is a special type of microscope where the objective lenses are mounted below the stage and collects light that travels downward through the specimen. It is used for observing cells and microbes in culture, in Petri dishes, flasks, microplates, and roller bottles.